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Running Head: PERFORMANCE ANXIETY

An Examination of the Effectiveness of Management Skills for the

Performance Dread of Musicians

Melissa M. Slawsky

Abstract

The unbiased of this research proposal is to examine the effectiveness of coping strategies in dealing with a common problems hared by many musicians. Performance anxiety has been known to pose detrimental and psychologically ‘crippling’ effects on musicians regardless of age, performance opportunity, or experience. Research has shown that performance anxiety can be managed from cognitive, pedagogical, psychodynamic, skills-based and biological perspectives. This study proposes to evaluate these different perspectives and management techniques for dealing with performance alarm. Qualitative data is also proposed to be collected through questionnaires and structured interviews with graduate students studying music performance at two leading universities whom deal with this accepted predicament.

Imagine the intricate process of baking and decorating a cake for a special occasion. One painstakingly follows a recipe, bringing several ingredients together to beget the produce of ones conception. Then, the icing is added, layer upon subtle layer to complete this elaborate creation. Although one is excited with the prospect of sharing the savory fruits of ones meticulous labor, the cake is inevitably dropped.

This cake analogy is the perfect example of how ‘stage fright’ or performance anxiety can have debilitating effects on the mind of the performing musician. Despite the painstaking process of learning and preparing a musical composition, several biological and psychological factors could alter the outcome of ones performance. However, research has shown that performance anxiety can be managed from cognitive, pedagogical, psychodynamic, skills-based and biological perspectives.

Purpose and Justification
The purpose of this study is to evaluate management techniques for dealing with musicians’ stage fright and performance anxiety. Although traditional music curriculum neglects this common phenomenon, this is a very relevant aspect in the lives of many musicians. Research has offered a vast cornucopia of management skills from varied perspectives on the subject. The effectiveness of these skills will be described through this qualitative study.

Hypothesis
Management skills drawn from cognitive, pedagogical, psychodynamic, skills-based and biological perspectives during the preparation phase of preparing a musical composition may have a positive achieve on the outcome of ones performance.

Literature Review
The topic of performance anxiety has been neglected in the traditional music curriculum. However, “in current years, researchers and pedagogues have recognized performance fright as a normal phenomenon that happens to most performing artists at some time, and that it can be dealt with during the preparation phase of the performance” (Lee, 2002, p.1). Before jumping into the actual management techniques that can aid in the performance apprehension of a musician, Dr. Sang-Hie Lee’s “Musicians’ performance anxiety and coping strategies” sheds light on previous studies pertaining to this current predicament.

K.D. Pruett, a clinical professor of psychiatry at the Yale Child Study Center, theorizes that if music is embraced as a social art beget, the musician will be able to embrace the audience by shifting his or her perspective on the performance experience. Pruett’s study, “Young Narcissus at the Music Stand: Developmental Perspectives from Embarrassment to Exhibitionism,” describes the performance history of a 12 year old boy whose perspective of performing shifts from fearless reveling in attention to “developing sensitivity to nervousness and fear” (Lee, 2002, p.2).

In James Allen’s “Educating Performers,” he explains the social aspect of performance panic even further by stating “it is quite contradictory to the usual lifestyle of the musician who practices many hours in a lone practice room and who, for the most part, struggles to compete for self-improvement with the self” (Allen, 1992, p.6). He further explains “while use of group training to alleviate performance anxiety has been adopted by some researchers, the social aspect or lack of it, has not been focused on as a factor of performance anxiety” (Allen, 1992, p.7).

In his famous book “Notes from the Green Room: Coping with Stress and Horror in Musical Performance,” Paul Salmon differentiates stage fright with performance anxiety. He states “stage dismay is the heightened nervous state during a performance; performance anxiety is the vulnerable state in anticipation of performance” (Salmon, 1998, p.4). He describes the process in which these anticipatory thoughts” trigger physiological symptoms often experienced by musicians such as “sweaty palms, dry mouth or trembling hands, that, in turn, cause behavioral responses such as missing notes and forgetting words” (Salmon, 1998, 5).

Renowned psychologist Matthew McKay (cited in Whitaker and Tanning, 1987, pp.32-40) identified nine distorting thought patterns that can very easily be applied to the anxious musician: tunnel vision; polarized thinking; overgeneralization; mind reading; catastrophizing; personalization; fallacy of power and control; blaming; and should.
Tunnel vision occurs when one “looks at one element of a situation and forgets all others,” such as the looking deadline of an upcoming audition. An individual suffering from tunnel vision would feel that nothing else matters. Polarized thinking is the condition in which an individual feels that everything is either splendid or abysmal. McKay explains that “an anxious performer tends to think either he or she is very good or not good at all; there is no middle ground.” Overgeneralization, when applied to music, is when one bad performance or section of a fragment represents his or her entire capability as a musician. Catastrophizing is the “tendency to magnify a small event to a degree that one thinks everything has declined. It is analogous to making a mountain out of a mole hill.” Personalization means “taking everything as related to one’s personal well-being, personal injury or personal glory instead of being able to separate the person and the task.” Fallacy of power and control is a state in which an individual feels either omnipotent, or powerless and out of control, resulting in feelings of shame and guilt.
Blaming in the opposite condition of power and control, in which an individual finds something or someone to blame for ones performance, rather than taking responsibility.
The thought pattern ‘should’ refers to the condition when one “imposes upon oneself a list of inflexible expectations or rules that can paralyze an otherwise smooth performance.” Whitaker and Tanner (1987) further explain, “These types of thoughts are automatic and, unless recognized and interfered in some systematic way, the performer can easily put himself in the chain reaction model that sets up pre-performance anxiety.

Respected musician and artist, Stuart Dunkel, discusses the trifles and worries of real life in the arts. He explains, “Musician’s stress also can come from the uncertainty about employment, odd hours, competition with colleagues, poor financial rewards” (Dunkel, 1991, pp.6-10). He further explains, “Unlike the business world, musicians are forced constantly into conditions such as living between reality and fantasy, having to depend on others’ approval of one’s excellence or worth, having to face fear and horror, having to deal with criticism, failure or jealousy, and often being unable to separate self from the work.” However, Dunkel admits that “in the midst of these perilous conditions of making music, musicians create ingenious and incredible coping strategies that make life in music vital and worthwhile.”

Several researchers state that certain aspects of anxiety, a biologically-based heightened state of arousal, can be first-rate in ones performance. D.L. Hamman’s research shows that “musicians with the highest level of formal training were able to use the anxiety factor for positive performance effect” (Hamman, 1982, p.77). M.L. Wolfe also finds that “professional musicians used the positive anxiety components, such as arousal and intensity, to promote performance rather than letting the negative elements, like terror and distractability, diminish performance quality” (Wolfe, 1989, p.47). Another peek conducted by Salmon, Schrodt, and Wright (1989) identifies three strategies for coping with performance anxiety. Professional musicians were able to arrive a peak level of anxiety prior to performing, yet retain control during performance through “systematic rehearsal inflamed exposure to performance-related situations; positive and realistic self-statements to counteract unrealistic anticipatory fears; and the combined exhaust of mental imagery and relaxation training to develop anticipatory coping responses” (Salmon et al, 1989, pp.78-80).

A myriad of studies and coping strategies exist from physiological and psychological perspectives. Individuals were trained to replace “replace self-degrading, negative thoughts with positive task-oriented self-talk” in a inspect by Kendrick, Craig, and Lawson (1982, p.355). Four studies, in particular (as cited in Lee, 2002), deal with the topic of behavior modification through group discussion therapy and systematic desensitization. While Wardle and Appel deal with performance panic in the classroom or studio setting, Norton, MacLean & Wachna and Macune use cognitive therapy sessions in dealing with this predicament (Lee, 2002, 3). Other techniques in behavioral therapy involve muscle relaxation techniques and attentional training (Lee, 2002, p.3). Three separate studies by Levee, Morasky, and Levine & Irvine (cited in Lee, 2002) utilize electromyographic biofeedback training to reduce muscle tension. Pianist, B. McCune utilizes musical analysis and improvisation techniques in her unpublished doctoral dissertation. (McCune, 1982, p.3).

Timothy Gallwey (1976) revolutionized the field of performance and sport’s psychology with his renowned book “The Inner Game of Tennis.” He offers the art of concentration as the ultimate solution to reducing ones anxiety of performance. He explains:
One of the most practical ways to increase concentration on the ball is to learn to love it! Rep to know the tennis ball; appreciate its qualities…. Forget for a moment that it is a tennis ball and look freshly at its shape, its texture, its feel…. Allow yourself to know the ball both intellectually and through your senses. Make friends; do anything to start a relationship with it. It will help concentration immeasurably. (Gallwey, 1974, pp.107-108)

This can be aptly applied to music by focusing on “hearing every tone, every phrase, every harmonic change, every rhythmic nuance, and feeling every tactile sense and the emotional response during practice, can train the mind to concentrate on music rather than letting other thoughts enter the mind” (Lee, 2002, p.3).

Performance anxiety is an aspect of most musicians. Unfortunately, it can never be cured, only managed. However, a wealth of information exists on the subject and a myriad of coping strategies or management techniques is offered. This gape will describe the effects of some of these coping strategies on the performance of musicians at USF and UCF.

Method
Participants will be drawn from a sample of graduate students studying music performance at the University of South Florida and the University of Central Florida. Qualitative data will be collected via structured interviews and self-reported questionnaires. Pre-performance data, known here on out as pre-test data, will be collected concerning gender, age, experience, performance level, degree of performance anxiety, symptoms, and management skills they have tried or have considered trying. Post-performance data, referred to as post-test data, will be quiet concerning the prescribed management skills, level of anxiety, experience symptoms, and the outcome of ones performance.

Instruments and Procedures
Questionnaires will be distributed to applied music professors at the Universities of South Florida and Central Florida and in turn will be distributed to graduate music performance students during their studio class. (group performance class) This pre-test questionnaire will determine what degree of performance horror exists, if any, management techniques they have tried, and if anything, what has worked. Following the questionnaire, a concise explanation of management skills will be distributed and a management notion will be developed between the applied lesson teacher and the student suffering from performance anxiety. Following the next performance opportunity in studio class, a post-test questionnaire will be distributed to recount the extent the prescribed management skills may have improved the outcome of the student’s performance.

Qualitative Interviews
Following pre-test and post-test questionnaires, qualitative data will be collected through structured interviews to come by further insight as to the symptoms and experiences of students studying music performance. Effectiveness of prescribed management skills will be discussed in terms of the outcome of ones performance.

Analysis
Responses level-headed from interviews and questionnaires will describe the positive effect, if any, management skills may have had on ones performance. Responses will also shed light upon which skills, in particular, aided this particular group of students.

References
Allen, J.S. (1992). Educating performers. The Key Reporter, 62 (2), 6-7.
Dunkel, S.E. (1989). The audition process: Anxiety management and coping strategies.
(pp. 6-10) Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press.
Gallwey, W.T. (1976). Inner game of tennis. (pp. 107-108) New York: Random House.
Hamman, D.L. (1982). An assessment of horror in vocal and instrumental performers.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 30, 77.
Hamann, D. (1985). The Other Side of Stage Alarm. Music Educators Journal, 71, 26-28.
Kendrick, M., Craig K., Lawson D., & Davidson P. (1982). Cognitive and behavioral
therapy for musical-performance anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 50, 353-362.
Lee, S.H. (2002, August-September). Musicians’ performance anxiety and coping
strategies. American Music Teacher [Online]. Available:
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2493/is_1_52/ai_90307697/pg_1
McCune, B. (1982). Functional performance anxiety modification in adult pianists.
(Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University, 1982). Dissertation Abstracts
International, 49, 763D.
Pruett, K.D. (1988). Young Narcissus at the music stand: developmental perspectives
from embarassment to exhibitionism. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 3
(2), 69-75.
Salmon, E., Schrodt, R., & Wright, J. (1989, June). A temporal gradient of anxiety in a
stressful performance context. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 4 (2),
78-80.
Salmon, P.G. (1990, March). A psychological perspective on musical performance
anxiety: A review of the literature. Medical Problems of Performing Artists (5), 1,
2-11.
Salmon, P. (1992) Notes from the green room: Coping with stress and anxiety in musical
performance. (pp. 4-5). Fresh York: Lexington Books.
Whitaker, C.S. (1984). Modifications of psychophysiological responses to stress in piano
performer. (Doctoral Dissertation, Texas Tech University, 1984).
Dissertation Abstracts International, 55, 595D.
Whitaker, C.S., & Tanner, D.R. (1987). But I played it perfectly in the practice room!
(pp. 32-40) Lanham, NY: University Press of America.
Wolfe, M.L. (1989) Correlates of adaptive and maladaptive musical performance
anxiety. Medical Problems of Performing Artists (86), 47.

Appendix A
Letter of Intent for Questionnaires

Dear Colleague,

Enclosed you will find two questionnaires to distribute to your applied music students specializing in music performance. The purpose of the questionnaires and this behold is to describe the debilitating effects of performance anxiety, incorporate coping strategies or management techniques into performance preparation, and describe the effects coping strategies had, if any, on the outcome of student performance. Since performance anxiety is an aspect that is often neglected in the studio, we are hoping this study will help to incorporate management skills into the preparation phase of performance.

The first questionnaire, entitled Pre-Performance is to be distributed during the first studio class. Feel free to host a discussion about performance anxiety and the role it plays in the life of a performing musician. Next, a list of available coping strategies or management techniques will be distributed to students. Feel free to discuss these strategies with students suffering from anxiety during this class, or individual lessons.

The next questionnaire, entitled Post-Performance will be distributed after the class performs for one another. (Preferably at least a week after the first questionnaire and list of strategies was distributed) The purpose of this questionnaire is to describe what techniques were former, if any, and the effect it may have had on the outcome of the performance.

All data collected will be kept anonymous and confidential. A copy of the research report will be submitted to each participating professor. I am hoping the process and results of the study will encourage the incorporation of these management skills into the preparation phase of performance.

Thanks so much!

Melissa M. Slawsky

Appendix B
Pre-Performance/Pre-Test Questionnaire

Dear student and fellow musician:
Thank you for your cooperation in this study on performance anxiety in musicians. I am hoping that this study will encourage you to talk with your professor about potential management skills or coping strategies for performance anxiety. Incorporating these techniques into the preparation phase of performance may result in a better and more enjoyable outcome.

Thanks so great!

Melissa M. Slawsky

For each of the following items, put an X beside the choice that best describes you.
1. Gender: Male ___ Female ___
2. Total years studying instrument/voice: 1-5 ___, 6-10 ____, 11-15 ___, 16-20____, more than 20 ____.
3. What is your age: Under 21 ____, 21-24 ____, 25-30 ____, 31-35 ____, 36-40 ____,
41-45____, over 46 _____.
4. Level of playing/singing: Beginner _____, Intermediate ____, Advanced _____.
5. Instrument/Voice: (please list) ____________________________________________.

Following are a number of statements describing your experiences with performance anxiety. Read each statement and circle whether you strongly agree (SA), agree (A), are uncertain (U), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD) with each statement.

6. I have experienced performance anxiety. SA A U D SD
7. I currently suffer from performance anxiety. SA A U D SD
8. I enjoy performing. SA A U D SD
9. I dread performing. SA A U D SD
10. I currently try to ‘practice’ performing in order to SA A U D SD
overcome my performance anxiety.
11. I wish I had someone to succor me with my anxiety. SA A U D SD
12. I have considered leaving this profession or SA A U D SD
course of peep, due to my anxiety.
13. I try to hide my anxiety. SA A U D SD
14. Others know of my alarm. SA A U D SD
15. I do not fetch nervous while performing. SA A U D SD

Below is a list of physiological and psychological responses to performance dread. Put a check in front of each response you have experienced or currently experience.
16. __ sweaty palms
17. __ elevated heart rate
18. __ shaking hands or feet
19. __ loss of memory
20. __ feeling of loss of control
21. __ feelings of hopelessness
22. __ depression
23. __ loss of enjoyment for music study
24. __ feelings of impending doom (upcoming audition or performance)
25. __ rushing (the share gets faster and faster, or is played without breath or pause)

The following is a list of questions pertaining to coping strategies you have tried in the past in dealing with performance anxiety. Please put a check or X in front of each strategy you have ragged.
26. __ distinct ‘self-talk’
27. __ visualization
28. __ practice performing several times before ultimate performance
29. __ hypnosis
30. __ pills/drugs (beta-blockers, etc….)
31. __ breathing exercises (meditation, yoga, prayer)
32. Other (please list): ________________________________________________________________________

Thank you for your time and cooperation! Following your next performance in studio class, you will be asked to fill in a post-performance questionnaire.

Appendix C
Post-Performance/Post-test Questionnaire

Dear student and fellow musician:
I hope that the prescribed coping strategies/management techniques resulted in an enjoyable experience! (Resulting in an enjoyable performance.) Please retort the following questions about your preparation and experience with this performance.

Thanks so much!

Melissa M. Slawsky

Below is a list of coping strategies/management techniques. Put an X or a check in front of each strategy/technique you utilized during the preparation for this performance:
1. __ certain self-talk
2. __ visualization
3. __ breathing exercises (yoga, meditation, prayer)
4. __ practicing of performing (performing over and over in preparation)
5. __ pills, drugs (beta-blockers, etc…)
6. __ Strategies presented by Timothy Gallwey in the Inner Game of Tennis.
7. Other(s): (please list) ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Please list any books that you found kindly on the subject:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Following are a number of statements describing your experience with this performance and preparation. Read each statement and circle whether you strong agree (SA), agree (A), are uncertain (U), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD) with each of the following statements.
9. I found the experience of preparing for a performance helped me. SA, A, U, D, SD
10. I noticed a difference in my attitude prior to performing. SA, A, U, D, SD
11. I noticed a distinct difference in my performance SA, A, U, D, SD
12. My professor took an active role in helping me prepare SA, A, U, D, SD
for this performance in regards to my anxiety.
13. I feel better equipped to handle my performance anxiety. SA, A, U, D, SD
14. I have a better outlook on my performance. SA, A, U, D, SD

Please provide any additional comments you have about this topic.

Appendix D
List of Management Techniques and Resources
For Performance Apprehension

Dear students and professors:
Here is a list of resources and coping strategies in regards to dealing with performance anxiety. Feel free to choose a few to implement into the preparation phase of preparing for performance.

1. Positive ‘self-talk’ (eliminating the negative ‘voices’ from within)
Resources-
Notes from the Green Room: Coping with Stress and Anxiety in Musical Performance by P. G. Salmon & R. G. Meyer
Performance Anxiety: Overcoming Your Awe in the Workplace, Social Situations, Interpersonal Communications, and the Performing Arts by Robin W. Mitchell
Controlling Stage fright: Presenting Yourself to Audiences from One to One Thousand by Peter Desberg
Audition Process: Anxiety Management and Coping Strategies by S. E. Dunkel
Stage fright: Its Causes and Cures, with Special Reference to Violin Playing by Kato Havas
A Soprano on Her Head by Eloise Ristad
The Perfect Wrong Not: Learning to Trust Your Musical Self by William Westney
2. Performance or Motivational Psychology (aka Sports psychology) Resources-
The Inner Game of Tennis by Timothy Gallwey
The Inner Game of Music by Barry Green and Timothy Gallwey
Performance Power: Winning Ways to Fight Your Audience by Gloria Shafer
3. Utilizing the positive aspects of anxiety (controlling the negative) Resources-
Stage-fright: Letting it Work for You by Robert Triplett
Performance Power: Transforming Stress into Creative Power by Imtraud Tarr Kreuger
Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
4. Practicing for Performance (simulating the performance experience to desensitize to the negative effects of dismay) Resources-
The Performer Prepares by Robert Caldwell
The Confident Performer by David Roland
5. Biofeedback training (How to control our body’s response to anxiety) Resources-
Curiosity Recaptured: Exploring Ways We Think and Move by Jerry Sontag
Body Mastery: Creating Success in Sport and Life by Dan Millman
Body Learning: An Introduction to the Alexander Technique by Michael Gelb

*In addition to this list, a copy of the reference section of my research proposal, as well as a copy of Sang-Hie Lee’s article entitled: “Musicians’ Performance Anxiety and Coping Strategies” will be included.

Appendix E
Pre-Performance Interview Protocol

Interview Protocol
Project: Performance Terror of Musicians (Management Techniques)

Time of interview:
Date:
Place:
Interviewer:
Interviewee:
Position of interviewee:

The purpose of this interview is to picture the extent to which performance anxiety affects the experiences of graduate students studying music performance at UCF and USF.

Questions:
1. What is your instrument? Voice?

2. What has been your experience with performance anxiety?

3. How does performance anxiety affect your current performance experiences?

4. What symptoms or responses to anxiety to you experience?

5. What strategies/techniques have you tried?

6. What books or readings have you found on the topic?

7. To what extent did these findings or strategies encourage? (if at all)

8. What are you hoping to glean from this experience?

9. What would be your ideal performance experience?

10. Do you wish you could have a coach or someone to help guide you?

11. Do you wish your professor would incorporate this topic into the curriculum?

12. What are you anxious about in regards to performing?

13. What negative thoughts run through your head that affect your performance?

14. What you think about while performing?

Appendix F
Post-Performance Interview Protocol

Interview Protocol
Project: Performance Anxiety of Musicians (Management Techniques)

Time of interview:
Date:
Place:
Interviewer:
Interviewee:
Position of interviewee:

The purpose of this interview is to describe the extent to which performance anxiety affects the experiences of graduate students studying music performance at UCF and USF. This interview, in particular, addresses which techniques were ‘prescribed’ and to what effect they had on the performance.

Questions:
1. How did you feel when you read the list of techniques?

2. Which techniques interested you?

3. What techniques did you try?

4. Which books and theories interested you?

5. Did you read further on any of the resources?

6. How did your professor help you in this process?

7. How did you incorporate these strategies into your practice?

8. How did you feel prior to performing? Any change?

9. How did you feel while performing? Any change?

10. How do you feel you did?

11. How do you feel after your performance?

12. Do you feel better equipped to deal with performance fright?

13. Do you have anything else you would like to add to the gawk?